3. Water intake It is vitally important to encourage piglets to maintain fluid intake post-weaning. It can take more than a week after weaning for the pig to restore its daily fluid intake to the equivalent of that on the day prior to weaning. According to Fowler and Gill (1989) a suckling pig has equivalent water consumption prior to weaning of ~680ml; however, water intake is only ~290ml in the first day post-weaning and averages ~442ml in the first week after weaning. It is only in the second week post-weaning that water intake averages ~770ml/pig. An adequate supply of fresh potable water is essential where the aim is to maximise post-weaning growth rates. Restricted water flow can reduce feed intake and consequently ADG by 15 %, respectively (Toplis and Tibble, 1994; Table 4). Drinker position is critical, as consumption can be inhibited if they are placed at the incorrect height, angle or position within the pen. Recommendations for the use of bite drinkers and bowls are shown in Table 5. Bowl drinkers are now more common because they waste 30 % less water and it is easier for pigs to find the water source. However, bowl drinkers should be cleaned at regular intervals to ensure a supply of clean water. Push type bowl drinkers have minimal water waste compared to nipple drinkers and float type bowls drinkers (Torrey et al., 2008). Whatever type of drinker is used for weaned pigs, it is important to use the same type also in the farrowing house. Table 4. Effect of water flow rate on post-weaning pig performance (Toplis and Tibble, 1994). Table 5. Recommendations on drinkers for weaner pigs (Pedersen, 1999) 4. Push energy intake early post-weaning Daily gain during the first week post-weaning has a positive relationship with pig weight at day 56 post-weaning and particularly so for light weaned pigs (Tokach et al., 1992). There is huge variation in pre-weaning growth rates of pigs. Edwards and Rooke (1999) reported a betweenfarm variation in post-weaning growth rates of 34 % and within-farm variation of 165 %, attributing most of this variation to differences in feed intake. In Moorepark, average pre-weaning growth rates (birth to weaning at 26 days) of ~260 g/day have been seen (Lawlor, 2000). Maintaining this growth rate in the early post-weaning period is problematic and in practice, intake in the first few days after weaning is normally insufficient to cover even the maintenance requirement, much less to support pre-weaning rates of gain (Lawlor et al., 2002). As a consequence of this, there is often catabolism of fat as the pig strives to balance its energy requirement for maintenance. Another consequence is a reduction in villous height seen after weaning which affects nutrient digestion, thus prolonging the postweaning growth lag and affecting performance to slaughter. Table 6 explores the average daily feed intake necessary for a range of weaning weights and a range of diets of differing energy density to maintain pre-weaning energy intake levels in the early post-weaning period. It is evident that, on a high health pig unit with good pre-weaning performance, if a starter diet of 16.5 MJDE/kg is provided then pigs would need to consume 420 to 464 g/day before pre-weaning energy intakes from milk are matched. This table also demonstrates that the necessary feed intake per pig is reduced when the energy density of the diet provided is increased. Table 6. Calculation of feed intake required post-weaning to match pre-weaning energy intake 5. Post-weaning diet 5.1. Level of milk products Dairy products, though expensive, are very important constituents of diets for pigs in the early post-weaning period due to their effectiveness in improving growth rate and feed efficiency at this time (Lawlor et al., 2005a). The time taken to reach target slaughter weight (~97kg) was reduced by 5 days by feeding a high dairy product starter and link in the post-weaning period compared with a low dairy product starter (Table 8; Lawlor et al., 2003b). In addition to this, mortality, incidence of scour and veterinary interventions are all likely to be reduced while management is made easier when a high dairy product post-weaning diet is offered. However, economics (diet cost and pig price) will dictate the degree of complexity of the diet and its duration of feeding in the commercial situation (Lawlor et al., 2003b). Including lactose as a carbohydrate source in the diet at levels even as high as 320 to 470 g/kg, increases post-weaning daily gain in weaned pigs. Dried whey contains 650 to 750 g/kg lactose and so it is the most widely used lactose source in starter diets. Crystalline lactose or de-proteinised whey can be used as lactose sources as long as they are of good quality. Skim milk powder is also commonly used in post-weaning diets but is not as critical in the diet as lactose and there is little benefit from substituting casein for soy protein sources for more than 2 weeks after weaning. 5.2. Cooking cereals When cereals are included in diets for newly weaned pigs they have often been subjected to some form of heat processing. This is generally done to make the carbohydrate fraction of the cereal more available for enzyme digestion in the gut. This is particularly important in newly weaned pigs because of their initially low levels of starch-degrading enzymes. Increased starch availability is normally measured in the laboratory as an increase in the gelatinised starch content in a sample (Table 7). Steam flaking is a relatively gentle heating process when compared with extrusion, expansion or micronization and is less likely to have negative consequences (formation of enzyme resistant starch and maillard reaction products, heat damage to amino acids). Steam flaking maize and wheat effectively increased the level of gelatinized starch in both maize and wheat (Table 7) but did not benefit post-weaning or lifetime pig performance. The response to inclusion of steam flaked maize and wheat in the post-weaning diet was not influenced by weaning age, weaning weight , level of dairy products in the diet (Lawlor et al., 2003a ;Table 8) or the sequence of feeding raw or uncooked cereals during the post-weaning period (Lawlor et al., 2003b). It is therefore difficult to justify the increased food cost associated with the process. Although we did not investigate the inclusion of barley in post-weaning diets, others found a 14% increase in average daily gain when the barley component of a post-weaning diet was extruded. This is most likely due to the higher fibre content in the barley. Table 7. Starch and gelatinised starch values for wheat and maize used in experimental diets (Lawlor et al. 2003b) Table 8. The effect of cooking maize and wheat (un-cooked or cooked) and level of dairy product (high or low) on pig performance from weaning to slaughter (Lawlor et al., 2003b) Cereals are frequently thoroughly screened and cleaned in advance of any cooking process and these processes alone are beneficial in terms of reducing their microbial load and improving growth performance. Responses to cooking maize and wheat, in particular, are very variable in the literature and it is possible that where responses are seen that it may be due at least in part to a decontamination effect. Therefore, if raw cereals are to be used in post-weaning diets then quality well screened grains with a low microbial load should always be used.
3.饮水量 仔猪断奶时维持液体摄取量极其重要。断奶后恢复每天液体摄取量到断奶前水平需要一周多时间。根据Fower 和Gill(1989)研究,乳猪断奶前的饮水量约680ml;断奶第一天的饮水量仅仅约290ml;断奶后第一周平均442ml。断奶后第二周饮水量平均每只仔猪770ml。提供足够清新的水是很重要的,目的是使断奶后增长率达到最高。限制水流量使采食量减少,结果平均日增重下降15%(Toplis和Tibble,1994,表四)。饮水器位置是关键的,如果是一个不正确的高度,角度,方位或死角的位置,就会限制仔猪饮水量。推荐的鸭嘴式饮水器和滚球式饮水器给出于表五。滚球式更常用,因为相比之下它可以减少浪费30%的水。对于猪来说更容易发现水资源。而且,滚球式饮水器应该每隔一段时间清洗,确保有大量的清洁水。碗式饮水器与乳头式饮水器相比浪费水较少(Torney等2008)。断奶仔猪无论使用哪种类型的饮水方式,都应该在产房里用同种类型的饮水器。 表四 断奶仔猪性能受水流量的影响(Toplis和Tibble,1994) 水流率(ml/分钟) 175 350 450 700 饮水时间(min) 4.46 2.97 2.93 2.32 饮水量(ml/day) 780 1040 1320 1630 采食量 (g/day) 303 323 341 347 平均日增重(g/day)210 235 250 247 饲料转化率 1.48 1.39 1.37 1.42 表五 断奶仔猪饮水器的说明(Pederson 1999) 猪的重量 饮水器类型 与地面的高度 流水量 (kg) (cm) (I/min) 5 Bite 30 30 15 Bite 45 45 25 Bite 55 55 7-30 Bowl 5-10 5-10 4.断奶猪早期的能量摄入 断奶仔猪第一周的日增重与猪断奶后56天重量呈正相关特别是对轻的断奶仔猪来说更明显。(Tokach等1992)。在猪断奶前的生长速度变异很大。Edwards 和Rooke(1999)报道,不同猪场仔猪断奶后增长率变异约34%,农场内变异是165%,这个变异主要是采食量不同造成的。 在摩尔庄园,是26日龄断奶,段奶前的增长率是平均每天260g(Lawlor 2000),在断奶后的前几天要保持这个增长率是很有问题的。实践中,在断奶后前几天的采食量通常不足,甚至不能满足维持需要,更不用说去支持增重(Lawlor等,2002)。结果,猪为了维持需要,经常分解代谢体脂肪以平衡能量缺口。另一个结果是在断奶后肠绒毛长度减少,它影响营养的消化吸收,这会延迟断奶后增长,这个影响可以一直到上市屠宰。 表六是为了维持能量摄取水平,在猪的断奶前期去探索一系列不同断奶体重的猪和一系列采食不同能量密度饲料的猪它们的平均每天采食量分别是多少。显然,在断奶前有一个好性能的健康的猪,如果一开始提供的饲料能量密度是每千克165兆焦,猪将每天需要消耗420g到464g的饲料,这与断奶前所采食的母乳所含的能量摄入量一致。这个表也证明了提供饲料的能量密度增加,使得每只猪的采食量减少。 表六 与断奶前能量摄取量相当的断奶后采食量计算 采食量 断奶日龄 26天 初生重 1.5千克 断奶重 平均日增重 兆焦 克/每天 克/每天 克/每天 克/每天 6.7 200 5.6 384 359 338 318 7.4 225 6.3 432 404 380 358 8.0 250 7.0 480 449 422 398 8.7 275 7.7 528 494 464 438 9.3 300 8.4 576 539 506 498 10.0 325 9.1 624 584 549 517 10.6 350 9.8 672 629 591 557 5.断奶后的日粮 5.1乳制品的水平 乳制品虽然很贵,但是在断奶后前期仔猪日粮成份是非常重要的,因为它能提高增长率和改善饲料转化率。在断奶后,摄取高乳制品日粮的猪和摄取低乳制品日粮的猪相比,实际屠宰日龄可减少5天。此外,给仔猪提供高乳制品日粮时,断奶仔猪死亡率,腹泻发生率,兽医参与次数都下降,当然管理起来就更容易了。然而,在商业盈利情况,经济(饲料成本和猪的价格)将决定日粮的复杂程度和饲料使用的持续时间。 仔猪断奶后,作为碳水化合物来源的乳糖在饲料中的含量高达每千克320g到470g,可以增加日增重。每千克乳清粉含有650g到750g的乳糖,因此,它是使用最广的猪日粮中乳糖的来源。质量好的精制乳糖或低蛋白乳糖可以被用作乳糖。在断奶仔猪的日粮中,脱脂奶粉也很通用,但是它在日粮中作为乳糖不是关键的,它替代酪蛋白收益很少,在断奶后替代大豆蛋白资源不能超过两周。 5.2谷物的加工 断奶仔猪日粮中的谷物经常先经过加热处理,这个做法使得谷物中部分碳水化合物更容易被肠道中的酶消化。这个对刚刚断奶的猪特别重要,因为它们最初的降解酶水平很低。在实验中,通常通过测定可溶性淀粉的含量增加量来衡量样品中糊化淀粉的增加量。 蒸汽压片与压榨、膨胀或者微粉化相比是一个比较温和的热处理,很少有负面影响(形成抗性淀粉、美拉德反应和氨基酸的热损害)。蒸汽压片处理的玉米和小麦有效地增加了玉米和小麦的糊化淀粉水平(表7),但是它对断奶猪或猪整个生长过程的性能没有受益。蒸汽压片玉米和小麦在断奶后仔猪日粮中使用的结果,不受断奶日龄、断奶体重、日粮中乳制品含量水平的影响(劳勒等人。,2003a;表8),也不受谷物饲用先后或热处理影响(劳勒等人,2003。)。因此,很难证明增加的食物成本与这个加工过程有关。虽然我们没有研究断奶后日粮中大麦的影响,但是有报道说,断奶后日粮中使用压片大麦,平均日增重增加了14%。这很可能是由于大麦的高纤维含量。 表七 实验日粮中玉米和小麦的淀粉和糊化淀粉值(Lawlor等,2003) 大麦 蒸汽处理的大麦 玉米 蒸汽处理的玉米 淀粉(g/kg) 609 624 654 644 糊化淀粉* 0.215 0.781 0.265 0.840 注:*占淀粉总量的比例 表8是否热处理玉米和小麦(未加工或加工)和乳制品的水平(高或低)对猪性能的影响(Lawlor 等2003) 方差分析意义 程序 未煮熟 煮熟 未煮熟 煮熟 C+ DP* C×DP** 乳制品水平 高 高 低 低 猪重(kg) 断奶 7.4 7.5 7.4 7.5 0.1 26天 1) 19.1 20.0 18.5 18.5 0.5 125天2) 96.5 97.1 96.0 95.7 1.6 增长性能 平均日采食量 571 583 576 578 16.9 0到26天1) 平均日增重 439 468 419 410 19.0 * 0到26天24 饲料转化效率 1.36 1.27 1.39 1.43 0.06 + 0到26天 3) 1)烹饪的影响,2)乳制品水平影响,3)烹饪和乳制品水平的相互影响,断奶后天数。 <0.10, <0.05. 按照减少微生物和提高增长性能的原则,任何加工过程和单独加工过程前对谷物频繁彻底地筛选和清洁是获益的。在文献中,特别是加工玉米和小麦的报道结果幻化很大,它至少部分被认为是有去污作用。因此,在断奶仔猪日粮中应该总是使用被筛选过的质量好的低微生物负载的谷物。
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